THEORIES

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Media Studies Theory for AS and A2 — Presentation Transcript

• 1. Media Theory 1. Audience 2. Nrrative 3. Media Language 4. Representation 5. Institution By K.McCabe 2012
• 2. 1. Audience•Always question who are the audience and what’s in it for them?
• 3. Audience Classification Mass Audience = products created for broad appeal Niche Audience = a small audience targeted to consume a niche media product.Source: Wikipedia BARB, RAJAR and NRS count audience figures
• 4. Uses & Gratifications1. Informationfinding out about events, satisfying curiositygaining a sense of security through knowledge2. Personal Identityreinforcement for personal values, finding modelsof behaviour, insight into ones self3. Integration and Social Interaction insight into circumstances of others; socialempathy, identifying with others and gaining asense of belonging, interaction, enabling one toconnect with family, friends and society4. Entertainmentescaping, diversion from problems, relaxing,getting enjoyment, filling time, emotional release
• 5. Two-Step theory
• 6. Audiences read texts. Hall’s HallReception Theory states thattexts are encoded for aspecific and preferredreading.If the construction ofmeaning needs the audience,it is now believed that, at bestaudiences negotiate readingas they modify, select anddiscard parts of the text basedupon personal experiencesetc.Oppositional or subversivereadings occasionally happenwhen the audience read a textis a way unintended andunexpected by the textproducers. Polysemic texts areopen to multiple readings.
• 7. Audience as ProductThrough mediatexts, Audiencesare delivered to Findproducers as examples ofpotential audiencesconsumers for beingtheir products. The subjected to‘price’ that the advertisingaudience has to in subtlepay for viewing and invasivetheir favourite ways.programme isexposure tocontinual, subtleand invasiveadvertising
• 8. 2. Narrative Theory Media texts tell a story. From print posters, adverts, news articles, films, television documentary – all have a narrative. Narrative theory is concerned with how the story is constructed – from character types, plot organisation, plot development and genre
• 9. Todorov stated thatnarrative is oftenstructured with a Todorovpattern of equilibrium(everything is ok,stable, as it has been),Disequilibrium (a Equilibriumproblem that threatensthe equilibrium) andNew Equilibrium (anew and slightlyaltered state resultingfrom the conflict)Give an example of a Todorovnarrative structure in a mediatext.
• 10. Levi-StraussBinaryOppositionGive two examples ofbinary oppositions inmedia texts and howthey are constructed.
• 11. Propp Propp analysed typical character types from fairytales. He believed that most narratives a variation or combination of these character types.Identify the charactertypes from a soap operausing Propp’s characters.
• 12. BarthesBarthes described Five Codes which are woven into any narrative.The most important of these are: The Hermeneutic Code :This refers to any element of the story that is not fully explainedand hence becomes a mystery to the reader. The purpose of theauthor in this is typically to keep the audience guessing, arrestingthe enigma, until the final scenes when all is revealed and all looseends are tied off and closure is achieved. The Proairetic Code:This code also builds tension, referring to any other action or eventthat indicates something else is going to happen, and which hencegets the reader guessing as to what will happen next.The Hermeneutic and Proairetic Codes work as a pair to developthe storys tensions and keep the reader interested.
• 13. 3. Media Language MediaA Media Text =the sum of its Languagemany parts. also known as Codes,These parts or Forminclude every can be splitelement within into ....it ...... TechnicalCamera angles,sound, fontchoice, lighting, Symbolicbody language,colours etc. etc. WrittenThis is MediaLanguage
• 14. SemioticsSemiotics is the study of the languageof signs.It deals with the meanings we attachto signs.Signs consist of a Signifier (the thing orsign itself) and the Signified (themeaning we attach to the sign)Other important terms include....Denotation = the literal meaning of athing or a signConnotation = the second level ofmeaning agreed by the communitybut not an inherent quality in the thingitself.
• 15. Syntagm & Paradigm
• 16. Conventions Where signs, codes & syntagm are repeated over time, they become Conventions - expected patterns in texts. Like rain on a British summer holiday, Conventions equal the ‘typical’ form.
• 17. McLuhan tells us that a "message" is, "the change of McLuhanscale or pace or pattern" that the brings. It is not thecontent of a text , but the change that it brings with it.For example, the message of theatrical production is notthe musical or the play being produced, but perhaps thechange in Tourism that the production may encourage. Inthe case of a specific theatrical production, its messagemay be a change in attitude or action on the part of theaudience that results from the medium of the play itself. Mcluhan’s work was groundbreaking because it forcesSimilarly, the message of a news broadcast is not the us to consider media texts in a radical new way.news stories themselves, but a change in the publicattitude towards crime, or the creation of a climate offear. A McLuhan message always tells us to look beyond theobvious and seek the non-obvious changes or effects thatare enabled, enhanced, accelerated or extended by thenew thing.
• 18. Realism Media texts have to appear to be real in order for theaudience to accept them – even a fictional dramatic 19thCentury period piece needs to suggest reality throughhigh production values, by not having an actor taking acall on their mobile during the shoot.Where reality issues are also important is in News,Documentary, Confessional talk shows and of courseReality TV.All of these are constructs of reality, some with higherentertainment values than others.
• 19. 4. Representation Representation relates to how a ‘thing’ (person, place, object, concept) is presented to an audience. This is a ‘re- presentation’ as the ‘thing’ has been through a process of modification, mediation and selection before being presented. Even words and photographs are ‘re-presentations’. The physical shape of a word has no meaning in itself – it is merely lines and curves. It has been given an agreed and accepted meaning. A photograph is not the ‘thing’ but an image or representation of the Apple ‘thing’.Understanding the central concept that presentation has been constructed andmeaning is negotiated or accepted and agreed, means that we can examinerepresentations more critically and analytically.
• 20. Key QuestionsWhat isbeing How are Who isrepresented? they creating the represented? representation ?Who Does the What is leftbenefits from representation out of thethe fit with representationrepresentation dominant ?? ideology?
• 21. StereotypesStereotypes are representations of people thatare repeated over time and so become a• Perkinssymbol of the group itself. They aresometimes thought of as a simplification, a• Dyershorthand used to rapidly access andconceptualise a diverse ‘group’.Perkins argues that Stereotypes are not‘simple’. They contain complex understandingof and information about roles and status insociety. Perkins also argued that they are notalways negative and often contain truth.
• 22. Dominant IdeologyIdeology is a set of deep rooted beliefs that impact on a person’sactions, expectations and goals.Dominant ideology are the widely held beliefs by many members of asociety. In Marxist theory, this dominant ideology serves the interestof the ruling classes.
• 23. Celebrity Dyer proposes that: ‘A star is an image not a real person that is constructed (as any other aspect of fiction is) out of a range of materials (eg advertising, magazines etc as well as films [music])’Dyer proposes that:A star is an image, not a real person, that is constructed (as anyother aspect of fiction is) out of a range of materials (eg advertising,magazines etc. as well as films).
• 24. Gender
• 25. Baudrillard Baudrillard argued that ‘reality’ in the modern world cannot exist. The media saturation of society means that all ‘presentations’ of truth or fact are actually ‘re-presentations, mediated, filtered, selected. Truth becomes lost and obscured. He believed we live in a state of ‘hyperreality’ that seems real but is in fact a version of reality
• 26. 5. Institution
• 27. Text Type & Ownership Google The Cons Times Daily Labour Mail Independent Web Political Bias The Print Sun Green Text Type News or Platform The i Conglomerate Print Ownershipmagazines TV ITV Public Hello Service BBC Ch4 Commercial Film To understand why a text has been constructed the way it has, you Pixar have to understand where it has Dreamworks come from, what limits and constrains it or gives it freedom.
• 28. Political Theory Marxist theory states that a small ruling, elite group have control . This group dominate the poorer, less powerful mass - the workforce, the larger group.Gramsci took classic Marxist ideas further. He theorised that the mass are in away ‘complicit’ with the ruling power. The mass accept this power, with thebelief that the ruling class know what is best for them. They agree to maintainor keep ‘the status quo’ on the condition that they have the opportunity tonegotiate or fight against restrictions that they do not agree with. This iscalled Hegemony.
• 29. Hierarchy of Needs
• 30. Moral Panic• How do Moral Panics help to maintain Institutional ‘status quo’? Who creates them? Who benefits from them?
• 31. Consumer SocietyDyer came up with the following lines of appeal used in advertising to sellconsumer goods.• Happy families - everyone wants to belong• Childhood – desire to go back to childhood or nurture• Rich, luxurious lifestyles - aspirational• Dreams and fantasy• Successful romance and love• Self-importance & pride• Comedy & humour• Elite people (celebrity) or experts• Glamorous places• Successful careers• Art, culture & history• Nature & the natural world• Beautiful women

Todorov's Theory of Narrative

Audience Theories

Signs and Signifiers

A sign can be a physical form to which we give meaning.  

The signifier is the physical form which we can see or 

hear - i.e. words, diagram, picture, music, siren.  The 

signified is the meaning which we attach to the signifier -

i.e. Learner driver, no entry, Nazi etc.  The real world 

referrent is the actual ‘real life’ object - i.e. a real rabbit.rabbit

Signs cannot be combined purely at random if they are to 

mean anything.  Our understanding of them depends on 

our social and cultural background. 

We can anchor a sign by using words or pictures - i.e. 

text on a poster, a caption under a newspaper splash, text 

on an advert, a voiceover on a film. 

Hypodermic Syringe Theory (Audiences)

‘What does that sign say?’

‘It says nothing - it needs to be read.’ 

The hypodermic syringe theory is that the media is like a 

syringe which injects ideas, attitudes and beliefs into the 

audience.

In some cases this may work, but the problem is that 

people are affected in different ways by the media -

films, advertising, newspapers, television etc.  The 

‘audience’ are also now much more critically aware of 

the media and having ideas ‘injected’ into them.

However, this theory still has uses - i.e. watching violent 

crimes can make you violent, for example the Jamie 

Bulger killers, copycat crimes, the ‘Power Rangers’ 

fighting in play grounds.  

Two Step Flow (Audiences)

The two-step flow theory suggests:

•We are much more likely to be affected by the 

media if we discuss it with others.

•Our opinions are affected by the way our friends 

etc have viewed the media,  i.e. discussions on 

Eastenders - Cat and Zoe, views on 

documentaries etc. The people we discuss our 

ideas with are called ‘opinion leaders’.

• This is another theory where the James Bulger

case has been cited - apparently one boy talked to 

his friend about a film he had watched and 

apparently influenced the other’s behaviour.

Uses and Gratifications Theory

According to uses and gratification theory we all have 

different uses for the media and we make choices over 

what we want to watch.  We are expecting something 

from our use of the media.

1.  Information - we may want to find out about 

society and the world.  We want to satisfy our 

curiosity.

2.  Personal Identity - we may watch television for 

models for our behaviour.  For instance - we may 

identify with soap characters or their situations.

3.  Integration and Social Interaction - we use the 

media to find out more about the circumstances of 

other people perhaps through empathy or sympathy.  

4.  Entertainment - enjoyment, relaxation, fill the 

time.

CRITICISMS

• You don’t always choose what media you use - you 

may be a secondary or tertiary user.  Your mum has 

the remote control! You have no control over what

 posters  you see on your way to school.